--12--DEDUCTIVE REASONING :HOW DO I REASON FROM PREMISES?

 How Do I Reason From Premises?

 About Deductive Reasoning 

  

  Deduct is from the Latin  deducere to lead away.In deductive reasoning we infer or lead away from a general  principle in order to apply that principle to a specific instance .

  

 The  Basic Vocabulary Of Logic 

 

1.   Argument : is a set of claims in the form of reasoning  offered to support a conclusion 
2.   Reasoning; is to draw conclusions ,judgments  or inferences from facts or premises  .
3.   Syllogism   : is a standardized form that makes the structure of a deductive argument visible 
4.   Premises    :  are the claims made in an argument  that provide the reasons for believing in the conclusion 
5.   Validity     :The standard used for testing reliability  are based on some specific rules that determine an argument's validity and soundness.
6.  Soundness  : Standarts for judging argument refer not only to correct reasoning but also to the truth of the premises.

 Standardized Forms In Syllogisms 

    Syllogisms have been discussed as a standardized form that makes the structure of a deductive visible .A syllogism  presents claims concerning a relationship between the terms given in the premises and those in the conclusion .

 

What  Syllogisms Do

1. To clarify the claims of the premises ;
2. To discover and expose any hidden  premises ;
3. To find out if  one thought follows logically from another .

The Interplay Of Inductive And Deductive Reasoning 

  Inductive and deductive thinking are not isolated modes .They interweave in our minds constantly 

throughout the day as we confront  both serious problems such as environmental  degradation and mundane ones such as daily transportation .

--11--INDUCTIVE REASONING AND INDUCTIVE FALLACIES:HOW DO I REASON FROM EVIDENCE?

       

 How Do I Reason From Evidence?

   Inductive reasoning is a method used to discover new information or to supply missing information .

   when we use inductive reasoning ,we observe ,test ,and check things out in some systematic fashion .Although it is an open ended method of learning and discovering ,it is not hit and miss or trial and error ,but has it own rules for arriving at the most reliable answer.

  Reasoning From Sensory Observation 

    " Sensory observation is the awareness of self and of the word though the basic senses of sight ,touch ,taste ,smell,and hearing .Ancillary senses include a sense of time ,weight ,energy,pressure,motion ,balance,direction ,color,darkness,cold and lightness... "

     The ability to observe and infer will always remain the primary  skills of a scientist.Even a scientist who employs instruments such as a computer ,microscope or  X-ray machine still depends primary on personal skills of reasoning  from sensory information.Moreover,some of the most dramatic discoveries in the history of science resulted from simple observing of the right  thing at the right  time .

  Reasoning From Enumeration 

"  Enumerate  means ;To  count off or name one by one or to determine a number from counting ."

  Induction uses enumeration in a range from simple counting to gathering statistics .The rules for good induction  are concerned with how to draw the most likely  and probable conclusions about wholes on the basis of a controlled sampling  of parts.

  Analogical  Reasoning 

  " Analogy means to find a correspondence of similarity  between things that seem different or an inference that if two things are a like  in some respect  ,they will be like in other respect... 

  Inductive reasoning ca be also be based on analogies ,which are a from of comparisons .All of us learn from  making comparisons .
  Analogical reasoning also severs as a mainstay of legal argumentation in countries  such as Canada,England and ,the United States,where the decisions depend on precedents;the rules of precedents  means that similar  cases must be decide in a similar  manner ..

  Reasoning With Hypotheses 

   "Hypothesis comes from the Greek word hypothesis,meaning a proposal ,suggestion ,or supposition .A hypothesis is the name given to a conclusion reached through inductive reasoning ;a hypothesis  is a trial idea, a proposal or a theory."   

  A conclusion derived from inductive reasoning is called a hypothesis.You found a number of them in the story of humphrey the whale ...

Fallacies Of Inductive Reasoning Covered In This Chapter 

1. Hasty Generalization 
2. Either or Fallacy 
3. Questionale Statistic 
4. Inconsistencies And Contradictions
5. Loaded Question 
6. False Analogy 
7. False Cause 
8. Slippery Slope 

   

--10--FALLACIES:WHAT'S A FAULTY ARGUMENT?

 What's  A Faulty Argument?

  Of course the man's defense is absurd,but would you recognize his red herring fallacy?In order to make learning  assimilation easier  ,these fallacies will be present to you in two segments, beginning  with this cheater.

Fallacies Of Trickery 

 Since the times of the Greeks ,fallacies  of reasoning  have been given names and categorized for study and identification  .When we learn the names and characteristic of these fallacies,we gain the following advantages:  

• We learn more about the rules for good reasoning  ;
• we avoid using them ourselves ;
• we are not influenced by arguments that contain  them.  

Fallacies That Use Language Trickery 

   Three fallacies seek to persuade by relying on deceptive language.They are called the fallacies or word ambiguity,misleading euphemisms ,and prejudicial language  .

Fallacies Involving Trickery With Emotions

   A sure sign of a poor argument is one smothered in a sauce of evaluative words . Word connotations 

convey evaluations that can be quickly  trigger emotions and invite a conspiracy of bias.Once a reader is flunked by them ,he or she may not even notice  a lack of sound supportive reasons. 

Emotional Appeals To Fear And Pity

1. What your best friends  won't  tell you..
2. Next time be safe with our fast call in service 
3. Did you think one insurance  coverage plan was enough ?
4. Are you still postponing  that alarm system?

Fallacies Using The Trickery of Distraction

   The  fallacies  of red herring pointing to other wrong ,straw man ,and circular reasoning  use the ploy of distraction. 

   Four other fallacies the red herring pointing to another wrong,using a straw man,and circular reasoning  classified  in may ways but what they all have in common is  a lack of support  for their arguments.

Red herring ;

 The red herring fallacy diverts our attention from the question at hand and throws us off track into irrelevances .

Pointing to another wrong

  This fallacy is also called two wrongs make a right because it assumes that two wrong cancel one other out .

Straw man 

   The straw man fallacy makes a false replica of an opposing argument then destroys it .It uses caricature ,ridicule ,and oversimplifications by way of refutation.

Circular Reasoning

  The fallacy of circular reasoning  is the assertion or repeated assertion of a conclusion without reasons being given to support the same conclusions.

--9--ARGUMENT: WHAT'S A GOOD ARGUMENT?

What's A Good Argument?

    Fighting maybe easier than arguing,but even fighting can't proceed when viewpoints and ideologies become entangled.

Critical Reading Of Arguments 

    In reading argument, maintaining  openness is not always easy ,especially  when the arguments express values that differ from your own. It can require a lot of restraint to slow down those inner objections  in order to make sure that you really understand what is being  said. Critical analysis cannot be fair unless it is based on a careful and accurate reading of the material.

 What Viewpoint Is The Source Of This Argument?

   You might have begun by first skimming through each argument ,reading the names,titles ,and affiliations of each speakers then argument in light of this information.From such clues ,you might have been able to make inference about the speaker's values,motives,and beliefs.

What Is The Issue Of Controversy?

  Thus ,every controversial topic generates many issues; moreover ,surrounding  these issues are many debate questions .

1.  Should we be willing  give up some freedom  for sake of national security  ?
2. Do we need to suspend some civil liberties in order to flight terrorism ?
3. In national security more important than our civil liberties  ?

 Debate questions can also be less general than the three given previously ,addressing a more specific aspect of the larger problem :  

•  Does dissent threaten national security?
• Should the USA Patriot Act be repealed  ?
• Are secret arrests detentions ,and hearings justifiable in the fight against terrorism ?
• Should cyber liberties be curtailed for the sake of national  security  ?

Is It Argument Or A Report?

 Argument  and report  are each structured differently and have different  objectives we cannot analyze one according to the standards  of the other.

--8--VIEWPOINTS:WHAT'S THE FILTER?

   What's The Filter?

   When one's own viewpoint is mistaken for reality ,there are no other viewpoints.

   The ability to detach from one's own point of view and assume another's is an skill; it enables us to communicate better with others and gain new perspectives. However ,if we forget that all information must flow through  the filters of human biases ,we confuse information with reality . 

  Viewpoints In Literature

   When we study the elements of literature such as plot ,theme and character a crucial element  is the point of view of that tell story .In literature author can choose a third person to tell the story with omniscient or limited understanding .Other choices of viewpoint include a first person narrative told by one characters. In each case ,the author  must decide how much information and sensitivity this view point will allow and how this perspective will shape the story and effect the reader .

  

   Recognizing Viewpoints Left And Right

 
   Today's student often find it both frustrating and confusing to understand ,use .and apply the labels "left"and "right" to categorize shifting world patterns  of political ,social ,economic  ,and religious values . In years past ,the following left to right political spectrum  could be drawn :


LEFT                                                           RIGHT

• ANARCHISM                                       LIBERALISM 
• COMMUNISM                                      CONSERVATISM
• SOCIALISM                                          FASCISM 

Hidden Viewpoints :The Use Of  News Framing

  When we begin to understand that information's filtered  though human viewpoints ,we begin to ask more questions about "the daily news ."We begin to wonder who decides what's is news ?Are they truth seekers dedicated to public service  ?

   Learning the identity  of owners of any given TV network remains  a challenge in this decade of constant and overlapping media mergers .

  The Discovery Assignment  that follows is designed to introduce you to the technique  of news framing analysis..A news frame is basically the layout , placement ,and prominence  given to any story in a publication.

   Frame analysis habits teach us to detach from the influence of the frame and gain a more objective perspective of the hidden viewpoint it express .

   

 

-7--EVALUATIONS: WHAT'S JUDGED?

    

      What's Judged? 

     When we mistake them for facts or are influenced by them unawares ,when get into trouble .Their effects are powerful.When we mistake them for facts or are influenced by them unawares ,we get into trouble.This how to both recognize and detach from evaluations.

     On Evaluations

     Our values shape our ideas ,decision and judgment.It takes some hard thinking to evaluate ,appraise and estimate value .We make comparisons and measure them against ideals ,yet our standards may be conscious or unconscious .

     Premature Evaluations

      If a stranger were to grab your arms and throw you down to the side walk,you would immediately think that this person was a thug .

   Evaluations Are Not Facts 

  Suppose you to go a lot of effort to persuade your brother to enroll in college ;he finally agrees to take one English course .Five weeks into the semester  ,he drop his English class He tell you he can't stand the instructor .

     Propaganda And Hidden Evaluations  

     The word propaganda means to manipulate public opinion for the benefit of the propagator .One thing is certain about propaganda : it shows no respect for truth and rational argument .Instead ,psychologically sophisticated maneuvers are employed to effect the unconscious mind sway emotions toward a predetermined purpose.

--6--OPINIONS: WHAT'S BELIEVED ?

 Whats Believed ? 

 By definition ,opinions express our decision about life.we collet them from experiences ,or adopt them from other.

 Types Of Opinions 

 Lets review what you may have discovered so far by categorizing so far opinions in to types.

1.     Men and women should not share college dorm.
2.     That car you bought was lemon 
3.     Judgment are based personal or collective codes of values.

Examples of such opinions are as follows

1. I wouldn't  advertise for a roommate  if i were you 
2. You need a new car 
3. As you must have  concluded from the earlier rating exercise ,whether one choose to accept advice is an individual

  A third category of opinions includes simple generalizations ,typically preceded by word all no or some,

1. Children in the United States are pressured to grow up too fast
2. Nothing comes without a price 
3. Here again support for the opinion may be offered  or not .

Distinguishing Between Responsible And Irresponsible Opinions 

  When we use the same word to convey so many different  meaning ;

1. An expert's judgment 
2. An unsubstantiated belief 
3. An argument that is well supported 
4. A final legal judgment 
5. Prevailing sentiment on a topic 

 Looking At Public opinion Polls 

 Some congressional representative and senators regularly poll their constituent by sending questionnaires with questions.
  On the whole ,do you consider the following institutions and people to be trustworthy  and credible